Western armies are masters of the conventional battlefield, but continue to have difficulty prevailing in unconventional conflict. Yet unconventional missions, including peacekeeping, counterinsurgency, counter-narcotics and counter-terrorism, are the only kind that NATO or EU forces are likely to be collectively assigned for the foreseeable future. These, then, should be the focus for NATO and EU planning, training and equipping. While the UN is the cheapest, most generally acceptable and often most effective instrument for managing international military interventions, there is an effective ceiling beyond which the UN will not suffice. The UN does not do forced entries, and has never fielded more than about 20,000 troops in any single operation. Where these thresholds must be surpassed, NATO, the EU or an ad hoc coalition will be needed. Afghanistan is the next test for Western collective defence efforts. Success there will require greater EU as well as NATO engagement.